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Fill in the blank word-for-wordto complete the sentence. When you see “…” it means that some sentences have been skipped over. Please highlight, bold, or underline your answers so that you are certain to receive credit for all of your work! Don’t forget to place your name at the top of the page.
American Cities & Technology, Introduction
The series is intended first and foremost as a contribution to the social history of technology; the _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________. The main focus, though not an exclusive one, is on the social relations of technology as exhibited in the physical form and fabric of towns and cities. The main aims of the series are twofold. The first is to investigate _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. The second aim is to __________ _________________________________________________________.
The wide chronological and geographical compass of the series serves to bring out the general features of urban form which differentiate particular civilizations and economic orders. Attention to these differences shows how __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ and shaped. In this series, __________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________. But however broad this interpretation, there are still distinctions to be drawn between, say, technology (the means of building) and the built environment (the product of building technologies); or between technology (the means of achieving human ends) and society (perhaps the most ambiguous term of all, but in one sense the summation of human ends in the form of a set of religious, moral, and political values).
If “technology” is a slippery term, so too is “city”, the other historical variable of this series. It should be emphasized at the outset that no particular store is set by the distinction between cities and towns, a distinction often made in a culturally specific way – for example, the particular British criterion that cities have cathedrals. In this series, _____________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________and specialization.
American Cities & Technology, Chapter 1: The Growth of Cities
The technology of urbanization in the United States has had much in common with that of Europe, and ___________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
_________________. That this is the case is perhaps hardly surprising, given the size and geographical diversity of the USA, with its abundant resources. The timing of city-building in relation both to the emerging nationhood and to developments in technology was also very different from Europe. In 1790 the first Census of Population was taken, shortly after George Washington had become the first president of the United States of America under its new Constitution. This census showed that about 5 percent of the new nation’s inhabitants lived in _____________________ _________________________________________. These colonial urban centers occupied a relatively narrow strip along the eastern seaboard. By the end of the nineteenth century, during which the area of the USA tripled and its population exploded from 5.3 million to 75.9 million, the percentage of urban dwellers had increased to about 40 percent. The trend towards concentration into urban areas continued in the twentieth century, with50 percent- the figure generally taken as a benchmark for defining a nation as “urban”- being reached by the time of the 1920census. Fifty years later, the 1970 census revealed that- following a spurt of urbanization after the Second World War, particularly in the West- 73.5 percent of the US population lived in cities. Despite the enduring image of “wide open spaces” and rural, frontier spirit, the USA had become a very urbannation. The enduring image is, in fact, understandable when we look at the geographical pattern of more recent urbanization in the western USA. The “wide open spaces” of the West have indeed persisted, despite the fact that the region, accounting for some 25 percent of the nation’s population in 1990, became the most heavily urbanized part of the country, with 86.4 percent of its population living in centers greater than 2,500 people, although these were very dispersed. Furthermore, _____________ ___________________________________________________________________.
This remarkable growth was fueled_________________________________________________ _________________________________________________, and afterwards by rural migration. In 1930, roughly 30 percent of the population still lived on farms, whereas in 1980 the figure was 3 percent. Another distinctive feature of________________________________________ _________________________________________________. It is estimated that most US cities lost more than half of the individuals from their populations every decade, but they continued to achieve rapid rates of growth none the less because the loss was compensated so rapidly by incomers. Nineteenth century populations, then, were not very stable. Urbanization in the USA was also characterized by a phenomenal amount of city-building on “green-field” sites… Ninety-eight percent of the cities with populations greater than 2,500 in 1900 had not even existed in 1800; of the US cities with populations greater than 100,000 in 1970, only 15 percent had existed in 1800. Clearly, __________________________________ ______. In terms of size, however, the main thrust of more recent urbanization has been the rise of medium to large cities, rather than huge new political entities.
Beginning in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, a _______________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________ within the urbansystem… The first period was characterized by the use of hand tools, water, and gradually steam power – but, where there was industrialization, only slight mechanization. In terms of transport, Werner stresses the____________________________________________________________________________ _____. The typicallarge cities of this period were regional economic centers. The period of 1870-1920 was characterized by the application of mature science and engineering to all aspects of manufacturing industry and especially the introduction of electricity. The railway network reached full maturity, while electric traction, the automobile and the lorry began to affect development within cities. It was during this period, deploying the technologies of what is classically called the “Second Industrial Revolution” when speaking of Europe, that the USA emerged as a major international industrial nation. According to Warner, the characteristic city type of this period – especially across the north of the country, stretching to the Midwest – was the metropolitan city with a specialized central business district and associated high urbanized, large industrialregions. The final period saw the ____________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _________ being the new transport technologies. The_______________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________.
Although they inevitably drew on European precedents, US cities built in the nineteenth century were different in character from those of Europe. The major difference- except for the case of New York City- was that__________________________________. _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________. This was due in part to the absence of city walls- an important contrast with many European cities- and partly to the policy of annexation, which took in large tracts of farmland within city boundaries to allow for future population expansion. Another distinctive feature was thewidespread use of simple city designs on a grid plan; this made both the handling of land transactions and city expansion relatively straightforward. Importantly, ___________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ than in European cities. This ledby the end of the century to______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. Underlying these specific characteristics was an important conjunction of conditions. First,__ _____________________________________________________________________________. That availability- which could only be dreamed of in much of Europe with its formal land-based aristocracies- altered the status of land from having social meaning to having a more strictly economic function as a commodity for exchange between individuals. Secondly, those individuals were relatively unconstrained because of the prevailing principle thatbeyond establishing the most elementary frameworks for public order, the government was not to control or manage the processes of settlement and development but leave all to private initiative. An ideology of individual social mobility underlay much of the city-building of the nineteenth century at a crucial formative period in the urban development of the USA. Another major difference between the USA and Europe was that, unlike European countries,________ _________________________________________________________. This was a legacy of the colonial era, when a number of cities of more or less equal stature focused independently on Europe, rather than on each other. First, ________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________ that formed the skeleton and nerves of the urban body. Second, ________________________________________________________________ _______ that had been constructed over the years to serve first the commercial and then also the manufacturing activities of the city. Third, this manufacturing itself was only able to exist in an industrial form through the use of transport to bring in raw materials and take out finished goods, and through the application of steam and other forms of mechanical power. Fourth, _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________.
To take a specific instance: as in Europe, the ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________
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